回答的问题:“我能够知道什么?”

(“如何成为可能”:它让我们能够坚信不疑的基础是什么)

  • 数学如何成为可能?
  • 自然科学如何成为可能?
  • 形而上学作为一种自然倾向如何成为可能?
  • 未来的形而上学作为一种科学如何成为可能?

人们盲目地相信理性的万能的同时,并没有对理性本身的范围和权限做出清醒的估计。形而上学的根本矛盾是人类本性所提出的要求和它实际上所具备的能力之间的问题。“对一般形而上学的可能性和不可能进行表决,对它的根源、范围和界限做出规定。”

英国经验主义与欧陆理性主义

欧陆理性主义(柏拉图、笛卡尔、莱布尼兹):没有任何经验材料的依据下,仅凭借理性和逻辑,断言在我们之外存在着某些终极客体的知识。 独断地设定自己的前提,结论是在前提中的,而可能无法在经验中确证。

英国经验主义(休谟、贝克莱):放弃形而上学的一切内容。怀疑感性经验背后的实体。

休谟问题:

  • 知识的基础是不是理性?我们对于因果的概念只不过是我们期待一件事物伴随另一件事物而来的想法罢了。因果关系是客观的,而不是必然的,理性不能担保因果必然性。科学的基础是心理联想。
  • 能否一劳永逸解决道德? how to derive Ought from Is? 如何从存在的知识中推出应当做什么。(道德区别并非衍生自理性:理性≠价值~道德,理性中无法推出价值判断,价值领域的相对性)(例,小偷泛同情心)

几个名词

批判“澄清前提,划分界限。” 由康德开始:三大批判。纯粹理性批判:澄清知识的先验的前提,并为人类的知识划定界限。

知识 知识主要是判断的形式:“A是B”

  • 分析判断:谓词包含在主词之中(同义反复)。没有包含额外的信息,比如“红花是红色的”。
  • 综合判断:谓词不包含在主词之中。比如“天鹅是白色的”。

与经验在逻辑上的关系区分:

  • 先天的知识:逻辑上先于经验的。
    • 先验(a prior)的知识:逻辑上先于经验,可以作用于经验对象的。
    • 超验(transzenantal)的知识:逻辑上先于经验,对先天知识本身的研究,不一定能作用于经验对象。
  • 后天的知识:逻辑上后于经验的。

真正的知识由先天综合判断构成。客观的必然的,逻辑上不依赖于经验(感性)对象,而且包含了真正的信息的。 “一切知识开始于经验”,通过经验获取知识。但是“一切知识并非都来源于经验”,存在先天的知识:逻辑上先于经验的知识。

感性、知性、理性。现象、物自体。

先验感性论(数学)

How is Pure Mathematics Possible?

  • how synthetic a priori judgments are affirmed in mathematical contexts.
  • how a systematic body of demonstrable knowledge comprises such judgments, allow mathematical truth to be invoked as a paradigm of the substantive yet necessary and universal truths that metaphysics hopes to achieve. (How is metaphysics possible as a science?)

Kant’s Philosophy of Mathematics

the business of mathematics…is that of combining and comparing given concepts of magnitudes, which are clear and certain, with a view to establishing what can be inferred from them.

The central thesis of Kant’s account of the uniqueness of mathematical reasoning is his claim that mathematical cognition derives from the “construction” of its concepts: “to construct a concept means to exhibit a priori the intuition corresponding to it”

(1)数学:5+7=12是综合判断,数学是先天综合知识(Synthetic A Priori Knowledge)。(但是黑格尔认为它是一个分析判断

“no matter how long I analyze my concept of such a possible sum [of seven and five] I will still not find twelve in it”, and also positively, claiming that “One must go beyond these concepts [of seven and five], seeking assistance in the intuition that corresponds to one of the two, one’s five fingers, say…and one after another add the units of the five given in the intuition to the concept of seven…and thus see the number 12 arise”.

(2)几何,principles of geometry thus express relations among basic geometric concepts inasmuch as these can be “exhibited in intuition” .

Answer:

  • The analytic method: (in Prolegomena) arguing from the synthetic and a priori nature of mathematical judgment to the claim that space and time are the forms of human sensibility.
  • The synthetic method: arguing that the forms of human sensibility, space and time, provide the basis from which to derive synthetic and a priori mathematical judgments.

先天的直观形式:时间、空间(it follows that only spatial and temporal magnitudes can be exhibited in pure intuition, i.e., constructed)

  • 是经验的条件,是我们感性感受到的现象的基础,不是概念,而是形式。
  • 不是物自体的属性,而是主体的形式。是形式因而不提供内容。
  • 经验的客观性,通过这个先天的形式,而使得经验具有了客观性(普遍、先天)—— 排除了经验主义的怀疑论。
  • 但是自在之物的客观性我们无法直接认识 —— 排除了理性主义的独断论。
  • cannot be employed outside the domain of mathematics proper for such reasoning —— is necessarily directed at objects that are “determinately given in pure intuition a priori and without any empirical data”.

数学认知与哲学认知的区别:while philosophical cognition is confined to the results of an abstract conceptual analysis, mathematical cognition is the result of a “chain of inferences that is always guided by intuition”, that is, by a concrete representation of its objects. (Kant claims that it is “only the concept of magnitudes” (quantities) that can be constructed in pure intuition, since “qualities cannot be exhibited in anything but empirical intuition”)

先验逻辑

确定先天的、于对象相关的知识的来源、范围和客观有效性。不同于形式逻辑。

主观演绎:

  • 直觉中领会的综合:知性在感性基础上的综合,得到范畴知识,数学 —— 质、量的范畴:全程、特称、单称,肯定、否定、无限。
  • 想象中再生的综合:想象过去的事物的表象,与当下的事物加以比较 —— 关系范畴:直言、假言、选言。
  • 概念中认定的综合:主观通过范畴以形成真正的认识对象(对象是由主体建立的,不是物自体)—— 模态范畴:或然、实然、必然。
  • 先验统觉:(自我意识)使认识的层次统一。用这样的“我”的连结,产生了关于对象、关于自然界的知识。
        graph LR
        C[我 物自体] --> D[先验统觉] --> E[对象现象] --> F[物自体]
  

Notes 纯粹理性批判演讲录 邓晓芒